Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of s characterized by levels over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include , , and . If left untreated, diabetes can cause . complications can include , , or death. Serious long-term complications include , , , , and . Diabetes is due to either the not producing enough , or the cells of the body not responding properly to the insulin produced. There are three main types of diabetes mellitus: * results from the pancreas's failure to produce enough insulin due to loss of s. This form was previously referred to as "insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (IDDM) or "juvenile diabetes". The cause is unknown. * begins with , a condition in which cells fail to respond to insulin properly. As the disease progresses, a lack of insulin may also develop. This form was previously referred to as "non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (NIDDM) or "adult-onset diabetes". The most common cause is a combination of and . * is the third main form, and occurs when without a previous history of diabetes develop high blood sugar levels. Prevention and treatment involve maintaining a , regular , a normal body weight, and avoiding . Control of and maintaining proper foot care are important for people with the disease. Type 1 diabetes must be managed with . Type 2 diabetes may be treated with with or without insulin. Insulin and some oral medications can cause . in those with is sometimes an effective measure in those with type 2 diabetes. Gestational diabetes usually resolves after the birth of the baby. As of 2017, an estimated 425 million people had diabetes worldwide, with type 2 diabetes making up about 90% of the cases. This represents 8.8% of the adult population, with equal rates in both women and men. Trend suggests that rates will continue to rise. Diabetes at least doubles a person's risk of early death. In 2017, diabetes resulted in approximately 3.2 to 5.0 million deaths. The global of diabetes related health expenditure in 2017 was estimated at billion. In the United States, diabetes cost nearly billion in 2012. Average medical expenditures among people with diabetes are about 2.3 times higher. Signs and symptoms The classic symptoms of untreated diabetes are unintended , (increased urination), (increased thirst), and (increased hunger). Symptoms may develop rapidly (weeks or months) in type 1 diabetes, while they usually develop much more slowly and may be subtle or absent in type 2 diabetes. Other symptoms of diabetes mellitus include weight loss and tiredness. Several other signs and symptoms can mark the onset of diabetes although they are not specific to the disease. In addition to the known ones above, they include , , , slow , and . Prolonged high blood glucose can cause glucose absorption in the , which leads to changes in its shape, resulting in . Long-term vision loss can also be caused by . A number of that can occur in diabetes are collectively known as s. Diabetic emergencies People (usually with type 1 diabetes) may also experience episodes of (DKA), a metabolic disturbance characterized by nausea, vomiting and , the smell of on the breath, deep breathing known as , and in severe cases a decreased level of consciousness. A rare but equally severe possibility is (HHS), which is more common in type 2 diabetes and is mainly the result of . Treatment-related (hypoglycemia) is common in people with type 1 and also type 2 diabetes depending on the medication being used. Most cases are mild and are not considered . Effects can range from , , , and increased appetite in mild cases to more serious effects such as , changes in behavior such as , , , and (rarely) permanent or in severe cases. and sweating, cold, pale skin are characteristic of low blood sugar but not definitive. Mild to moderate cases are self-treated by eating or drinking something high in sugar. Severe cases can lead to unconsciousness and must be treated with intravenous glucose or . Complications All forms of diabetes increase the risk of long-term complications. These typically develop after many years (10–20) but may be the first symptom in those who have otherwise not received a diagnosis before that time. The major long-term complications relate to damage to s. Diabetes doubles the risk of and about 75% of deaths in people with diabetes are due to . Other s include , and . The primary complications of diabetes due to damage in small blood vessels include damage to the eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Damage to the eyes, known as , is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the of the eye, and can result in gradual and eventual . Diabetes also increases the risk of having , s, and other eye problems. It is recommended that diabetics visit an once a year. Damage to the kidneys, known as , can lead to , , and eventually , sometimes requiring or . Damage to the nerves of the body, known as , is the most common complication of diabetes. The symptoms can include , , pain, and altered pain sensation, which can lead to damage to the skin. (such as s) may occur, and can be difficult to treat, occasionally requiring . Additionally, causes painful and . There is a link between and diabetes. Compared to those without diabetes, those with the disease have a 1.2 to 1.5-fold greater rate of decline in . Being diabetic, especially when on insulin, increases the risk of falls in older people. Causes Diabetes mellitus is classified into four broad categories: , , , and "other specific types". The "other specific types" are a collection of a few dozen individual causes. Diabetes is a more variable disease than once thought and people may have combinations of forms. The term "diabetes", without qualification, usually refers to diabetes mellitus. Type 1 Type 1 diabetes mellitus is characterized by loss of the insulin-producing s of the , leading to insulin deficiency. This type can be further classified as or . The majority of type 1 diabetes is of the immune-mediated nature, in which a -mediated attack leads to the loss of beta cells and thus insulin. It causes approximately 10% of diabetes mellitus cases in North America and Europe. Most affected people are otherwise healthy and of a healthy weight when onset occurs. Sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin are usually normal, especially in the early stages. Although it has been called "juvenile diabetes" due to the frequent onset in children, the majority of individuals living with type 1 diabetes are now adults. "Brittle" diabetes, also known as unstable diabetes or labile diabetes, is a term that was traditionally used to describe the dramatic and recurrent swings in levels, often occurring for no apparent reason in insulin-dependent diabetes. This term, however, has no biologic basis and should not be used. Still, type 1 diabetes can be accompanied by irregular and unpredictable high blood sugar levels, frequently with , and sometimes with serious low blood sugar levels. Other complications include an impaired counterregulatory response to low blood sugar, infection, (which leads to erratic absorption of dietary carbohydrates), and (e.g., ). These phenomena are believed to occur no more frequently than in 1% to 2% of persons with type 1 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is partly , with multiple genes, including certain , known to influence the risk of diabetes. In genetically susceptible people, the onset of diabetes can be triggered by one or more s, such as a or diet. Several viruses have been implicated, but to date there is no stringent evidence to support this hypothesis in humans. Among dietary factors, data suggest that (a protein present in ) may play a role in the development of type 1 diabetes, but the mechanism is not fully understood. Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age, and a significant proportion is diagnosed during adulthood. (LADA) is the diagnostic term applied when type 1 diabetes develops in adults; it has a slower onset than the same condition in children. Given this difference, some use the unofficial term "type 1.5 diabetes" for this condition. Adults with LADA are frequently initially misdiagnosed as having type 2 diabetes, based on age rather than cause Type 2 Type 2 diabetes is characterized by , which may be combined with relatively reduced insulin secretion. The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the . However, the specific defects are not known. Diabetes mellitus cases due to a known defect are classified separately. Type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes mellitus. Many people with type 2 diabetes have evidence of " " (impaired fasting glucose and/or impaired glucose tolerance) for many years before meeting the criteria for type 2 diabetes. Prediabetes and easy overt type 2 diabetes can be reversed by a variety of measures and that improve insulin sensitivity or reduce the . Type 2 diabetes is primarily due to lifestyle factors and genetics. A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including (defined by a of greater than 30), lack of , poor , , and . Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders. Even those who are not obese often have a high . Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Consumption of -sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk. The type of s in the diet is also important, with and s increasing the risk and and decreasing the risk. Eating lots of , and other es, also may increase the risk of diabetes. A lack of physical activity is believed to cause 7% of cases. Gestational diabetes Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) resembles type 2 diabetes in several respects, involving a combination of relatively inadequate insulin secretion and responsiveness. It occurs in about 2–10% of all and may improve or disappear after delivery. However, after pregnancy approximately 5–10% of women with GDM are found to have DM, most commonly type 2. GDM is fully treatable, but requires careful medical supervision throughout the pregnancy. Management may include dietary changes, blood glucose monitoring, and in some cases, insulin may be required Though it may be transient, untreated GDM can damage the health of the fetus or mother. Risks to the baby include (high birth weight), and abnormalities, and malformations. Increased levels of insulin in a fetus's blood may inhibit fetal production and cause . A may result from . In severe cases, perinatal death may occur, most commonly as a result of poor placental perfusion due to vascular impairment. may be indicated with decreased placental function. A may be performed if there is marked or an increased risk of injury associated with macrosomia, such as . Other types (MODY) is a rare inherited form of diabetes, due to one of several single-gene mutations causing defects in insulin production. It is significantly less common than the three main types, constituting 1-2% of all cases. The name of this disease refers to early hypotheses as to its nature. Being due to a defective gene, this disease varies in age at presentation and in severity according to the specific gene defect; thus there are at least 13 subtypes of MODY. People with MODY often can control it without using insulin. Some cases of diabetes are caused by the body's tissue receptors not responding to insulin (even when insulin levels are normal, which is what separates it from type 2 diabetes); this form is very uncommon. Genetic mutations ( or ) can lead to defects in beta cell function. Abnormal insulin action may also have been genetically determined in some cases. Any disease that causes extensive damage to the pancreas may lead to diabetes (for example, and ). Diseases associated with excessive secretion of s can cause diabetes (which is typically resolved once the hormone excess is removed). Many drugs impair insulin secretion and some toxins damage pancreatic beta cells, whereas others increase insulin resistance (especially s which can provoke " "). The (1992) diagnostic entity, malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus (MRDM or MMDM, ICD-10 code E12), was deprecated by the (WHO) when the current taxonomy was introduced in 1999. The following is a comprehensive list of other causes of diabetes: is a name used by some researchers for , as there is evidence that insulin resistance in the brain plays a role in the latter. It is not formally recognised as a form of diabetes. Pathophysiology (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a -rich vs a -rich meal is highlighted.}} s. Insulin production is more or less constant within the beta cells. Its release is triggered by food, chiefly food containing absorbable glucose.}} is the principal hormone that regulates the uptake of from the blood into most cells of the body, especially liver, adipose tissue and muscle, except smooth muscle, in which insulin acts via the . Therefore, deficiency of insulin or the insensitivity of its play a central role in all forms of diabetes mellitus. The body obtains glucose from three main sources: the intestinal absorption of food; the breakdown of ( ), the storage form of glucose found in the liver; and , the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates in the body. Insulin plays a critical role in balancing glucose levels in the body. Insulin can inhibit the breakdown of glycogen or the process of gluconeogenesis, it can stimulate the transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells, and it can stimulate the storage of glucose in the form of glycogen. Insulin is released into the blood by beta cells (β-cells), found in the in the pancreas, in response to rising levels of blood glucose, typically after eating. Insulin is used by about two-thirds of the body's cells to absorb glucose from the blood for use as fuel, for conversion to other needed molecules, or for storage. Lower glucose levels result in decreased insulin release from the beta cells and in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. This process is mainly controlled by the hormone , which acts in the opposite manner to insulin. If the amount of insulin available is insufficient, or if cells respond poorly to the effects of insulin ( or ), or if the insulin itself is defective, then glucose is not absorbed properly by the body cells that require it, and is not stored appropriately in the liver and muscles. The net effect is persistently high levels of blood glucose, poor , and other metabolic derangements, such as . When glucose concentration in the blood remains high over time, the reach a threshold of , and the body excretes glucose in the ( ). This increases the of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production ( ) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume is replaced osmotically from water in body cells and other body compartments, causing and increased thirst ( ). In addition, intracellular glucose deficiency stimulates appetite leading to excessive food intake (polyphagia). Diagnosis Diabetes mellitus is characterized by recurrent or persistent high blood sugar, and is diagnosed by demonstrating any one of the following: * ≥ 7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl) * ≥ 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl) two hours after a 75 gram oral glucose load as in a (OGTT) * Symptoms of high blood sugar and casual plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl) * (HbA1C) ≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5 %). A positive result, in the absence of unequivocal high blood sugar, should be confirmed by a repeat of any of the above methods on a different day. It is preferable to measure a fasting glucose level because of the ease of measurement and the considerable time commitment of formal glucose tolerance testing, which takes two hours to complete and offers no prognostic advantage over the fasting test. According to the current definition, two fasting glucose measurements above 7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl) is considered diagnostic for diabetes mellitus. Per the WHO, people with fasting glucose levels from 6.1 to 6.9 mmol/l (110 to 125 mg/dl) are considered to have . people with plasma glucose at or above 7.8 mmol/l (140 mg/dl), but not over 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl), two hours after a 75 gram oral glucose load are considered to have . Of these two prediabetic states, the latter in particular is a major risk factor for progression to full-blown diabetes mellitus, as well as cardiovascular disease. The (ADA) since 2003 uses a slightly different range for impaired fasting glucose of 5.6 to 6.9 mmol/l (100 to 125 mg/dl). is better than for determining risks of cardiovascular disease and death from any cause. Prevention There is no known measure for type 1 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes—which accounts for 85–90% of all cases worldwide—can often be prevented or delayed by maintaining a , engaging in physical activity, and eating a healthy diet. Higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%. Dietary changes known to be effective in helping to prevent diabetes include maintaining a diet rich in s and , and choosing good fats, such as the s found in nuts, vegetable oils, and fish. Limiting sugary beverages and eating less red meat and other sources of can also help prevent diabetes. Tobacco smoking is also associated with an increased risk of diabetes and its complications, so can be an important preventive measure as well. The relationship between type 2 diabetes and the main modifiable risk factors (excess weight, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and tobacco use) is similar in all regions of the world. There is growing evidence that the underlying determinants of diabetes are a reflection of the major forces driving social, economic and cultural change: , urbanization, population aging, and the general environment. Management Diabetes mellitus is a , for which there is no known except in very specific situations. Management concentrates on keeping blood sugar levels as close to normal, without causing low blood sugar. This can usually be accomplished with a healthy diet, exercise, weight loss, and use of appropriate medications (insulin in the case of type 1 diabetes; oral medications, as well as possibly insulin, in type 2 diabetes). Learning about the disease and actively participating in the treatment is important, since complications are far less common and less severe in people who have well-managed blood sugar levels. The goal of treatment is an HbA1C level of 6.5%, but should not be lower than that, and may be set higher. Attention is also paid to other health problems that may accelerate the negative effects of diabetes. These include , levels, , , and lack of regular . is widely used to reduce the risk of ulceration, or re-ulceration, in at-risk diabetic feet. Evidence for the efficacy of this remains equivocal, however. Lifestyle People with diabetes can benefit from education about the disease and treatment, good to achieve a normal body weight, and exercise, with the goal of keeping both short-term and long-term blood glucose levels . In addition, given the associated higher risks of cardiovascular disease, lifestyle modifications are recommended to control blood pressure. No single dietary pattern is best for all people with diabetes. For overweight people with type 2 diabetes, any diet that achieves weight loss is effective. Medications Glucose control Medications used to treat diabetes do so by lowering . There is broad consensus that when people with diabetes maintain tight glucose control (also called "tight glycemic control") – keeping the glucose levels in their blood within normal ranges – that they experience fewer complications like and . There is however debate as to whether this is for people later in life. There are a number of different classes of anti-diabetic medications. Some are available by mouth, such as , while others are only available by injection such as s. Type 1 diabetes can only be treated with insulin, typically with a combination of regular and NPH , or synthetic . is generally recommended as a first line treatment for type 2 diabetes, as there is good evidence that it decreases mortality. It works by decreasing the liver's production of glucose. Several other groups of drugs, mostly given by mouth, may also decrease blood sugar in type II DM. These include agents that increase insulin release, agents that decrease absorption of sugar from the intestines, agents that make the body more sensitive to insulin, and agents that increase the excretion of glucose in the urine. When insulin is used in type 2 diabetes, a long-acting formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications. Doses of insulin are then increased to effect. Blood pressure Since is a serious complication associated with diabetes, some have recommended blood pressure levels below 130/80 mmHg. However, evidence supports less than or equal to somewhere between 140/90 mmHg to 160/100 mmHg; the only additional benefit found for blood pressure targets beneath this range was an isolated decrease in stroke risk, and this was accompanied by an increased risk of other serious adverse events. A 2016 review found potential harm to treating lower than 140 mmHg. Among , (ACEIs) improve outcomes in those with DM while the similar medications (ARBs) do not. is also recommended for people with cardiovascular problems, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes. Surgery in those with and type two diabetes is often an effective measure. Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medications following surgery and long-term mortality is decreased. There is, however, a short-term mortality risk of less than 1% from the surgery. The cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear. It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control. A is occasionally considered for people with type 1 diabetes who have severe complications of their disease, including requiring . Support In countries using a system, such as the United Kingdom, care may take place mainly outside hospitals, with hospital-based specialist care used only in case of complications, difficult blood sugar control, or research projects. In other circumstances, general practitioners and specialists share care in a team approach. Home support can be an effective management technique. Epidemiology }} In 2017, 425 million people had diabetes worldwide, up from an estimated 382 million people in 2013 and from 108 million in 1980. Accounting for the shifting age structure of the global population, the prevalence of diabetes is 8.8% among adults, nearly double the rate of 4.7% in 1980. Type 2 makes up about 90% of the cases. Some data indicate rates are roughly equal in women and men, but male excess in diabetes has been found in many populations with higher type 2 incidence, possibly due to sex-related differences in insulin sensitivity, consequences of obesity and regional body fat deposition, and other contributing factors such as high blood pressure, tobacco smoking, and alcohol intake. The WHO estimates that diabetes mellitus resulted in 1.5 million deaths in 2012, making it the 8th leading cause of death. However another 2.2 million deaths worldwide were attributable to high blood glucose and the increased risks of cardiovascular disease and other associated complications (e.g. kidney failure), which often lead to premature death and are often listed as the underlying cause on death certificates rather than diabetes. For example, in 2017, the (IDF) estimated that diabetes resulted in 4.0 million deaths worldwide, using modeling to estimate the total number of deaths that could be directly or indirectly attributed to diabetes. Diabetes mellitus occurs throughout the world but is more common (especially type 2) in more developed countries. The greatest increase in rates has however been seen in low- and middle-income countries, where more than 80% of diabetic deaths occur. The fastest prevalence increase is expected to occur in Asia and Africa, where most people with diabetes will probably live in 2030. The increase in rates in developing countries follows the trend of urbanization and lifestyle changes, including increasingly sedentary lifestyles, less physically demanding work and the global nutrition transition, marked by increased intake of foods that are high energy-dense but nutrient-poor (often high in sugar and saturated fats, sometimes referred to as the "Western-style" diet). The global number of diabetes cases might increase by 48% between 2017 and 2045. History Diabetes was one of the first diseases described, with an Egyptian manuscript from 1500 mentioning "too great emptying of the urine." The includes a recommendation for a drink to take in such cases. The first described cases are believed to have been type 1 diabetes. Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or "honey urine", noting the urine would attract ants. The term "diabetes" or "to pass through" was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek . The disease was considered rare during the time of the , with commenting he had only seen two cases during his career. This is possibly due to the diet and lifestyle of the ancients, or because the clinical symptoms were observed during the advanced stage of the disease. Galen named the disease "diarrhea of the urine" (diarrhea urinosa). The earliest surviving work with a detailed reference to diabetes is that of (2nd or early 3rd century CE). He described the symptoms and the course of the disease, which he attributed to the moisture and coldness, reflecting the beliefs of the " ". He hypothesized a correlation between diabetes and other diseases, and he discussed differential diagnosis from the snakebite, which also provokes excessive thirst. His work remained unknown in the West until 1552, when the first Latin edition was published in Venice. Two types of diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians and in 400–500 CE with one type being associated with youth and another type with being overweight. The term "mellitus" or "from honey" was added by the Briton John Rolle in the late 1700s to separate the condition from , which is also associated with frequent urination. Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century, when Canadians and isolated and purified insulin in 1921 and 1922. This was followed by the development of the long-acting insulin in the 1940s. Etymology The word diabetes comes from diabētēs, which in turn comes from διαβήτης (diabētēs), which literally means "a passer through; a ". ( 1st century ) used that word, with the intended meaning "excessive discharge of urine", as the name for the disease. Ultimately, the word comes from Greek διαβαίνειν (diabainein), meaning "to pass through," which is composed of δια- (dia-), meaning "through" and βαίνειν (bainein), meaning "to go". The word "diabetes" is first recorded in English, in the form diabete, in a medical text written around 1425. The word comes from the classical Latin word mellītus, meaning "mellite" (i.e. sweetened with honey; honey-sweet). The Latin word comes from mell-, which comes from mel, meaning "honey"; sweetness; pleasant thing, and the suffix -''ītus'', whose meaning is the same as that of the English suffix "-ite". It was who in 1675 added "mellitus" to the word "diabetes" as a designation for the disease, when he noticed the urine of a diabetic had a sweet taste (glycosuria). This sweet taste had been noticed in urine by the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, and . Society and culture The 1989 " " was the result of international efforts to improve the care accorded to those with diabetes. Doing so is important not only in terms of quality of life and life expectancy but also economically expenses due to diabetes have been shown to be a major drain on health and productivity-related resources for healthcare systems and governments. Several countries established more and less successful national diabetes programmes to improve treatment of the disease. People with diabetes who have neuropathic symptoms such as numbness or tingling in feet or hands are twice as likely to be as those without the symptoms. In 2010, diabetes-related emergency room (ER) visit rates in the United States were higher among people from the lowest income communities (526 per 10,000 population) than from the highest income communities (236 per 10,000 population). Approximately 9.4% of diabetes-related ER visits were for the uninsured. Naming The term "type 1 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including childhood-onset diabetes, juvenile diabetes, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Likewise, the term "type 2 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including adult-onset diabetes, obesity-related diabetes, and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Beyond these two types, there is no agreed-upon standard nomenclature. Diabetes mellitus is also occasionally known as "sugar diabetes" to differentiate it from diabetes insipidus. Other animals In animals, diabetes is most commonly encountered in dogs and cats. Middle-aged animals are most commonly affected. Female dogs are twice as likely to be affected as males, while according to some sources, male cats are also more prone than females. In both species, all breeds may be affected, but some small dog breeds are particularly likely to develop diabetes, such as . Feline diabetes mellitus is strikingly similar to human type 2 diabetes. The breed, along with the , , and cat breeds, showed an increased risk of DM, while several breeds showed a lower risk. There is an association between overweight and an increased risk of feline diabetes. The symptoms may relate to fluid loss and polyuria, but the course may also be insidious. Diabetic animals are more prone to infections. The long-term complications recognized in humans are much rarer in animals. The principles of treatment (weight loss, oral antidiabetics, subcutaneous insulin) and management of emergencies (e.g. ketoacidosis) are similar to those in humans. Research has been developed. The original products were withdrawn due to side effects. Afrezza, under development by the pharmaceuticals company , was approved by the United States (FDA) for general sale in June 2014. An advantage to inhaled insulin is that it may be more convenient and easy to use. Transdermal insulin in the form of a cream has been developed and trials are being conducted on people with type 2 diabetes. Major clinical trials The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) was a clinical study conducted by the United States (NIDDK) that was published in the in 1993. Test subjects all had diabetes mellitus type 1 and were randomized to a tight glycemic arm and a control arm with the standard of care at the time; people were followed for an average of seven years, and people in the treatment had dramatically lower rates of diabetic complications. It was as a landmark study at the time, and significantly changed the management of all forms of diabetes. The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) was a clinical study conducted by Z that was published in in 1998. Around 3,800 people with type 2 diabetes were followed for an average of ten years, and were treated with tight glucose control or the standard of care, and again the treatment arm had far better outcomes. This confirmed the importance of tight glucose control, as well as blood pressure control, for people with this condition. References Category:Medical